In 1943, Alan Turing, father of computer science, and Claude Shannon, father of information theory, briefly encountered each other at Bell Labs in New York City. Pioneers in their respective fields, the two men were working on separate projects. They purportedly came together in the cantine to discuss ideas surrounding computing and the brain, machine intelligence (later termed artificial intelligence), and machine learning. Despite only encountering each other for two months, the theories and technologies advanced by Turing and Shannon transformed society into the information-driven and technological one we experience today.[1]
Quick Links
- Shannon & Turing: Fathers of the Information Age
- Shannon & Turing: Pioneers, Geniuses, Humans
- Further Information
Shannon & Turing: Fathers of the Information Age
It has been suggested that the digital revolution began in the 1940s with the work of Claude Shannon and Alan Turing. Shannon was primarily concerned with “information theory”: expressing all information as a binary code enabling error-free transmission. Shannon even normalised the term “bit” as a measure of information. Meanwhile, Alan Turing was working on “Intelligent Machinery”, laying the groundwork for the emerging fields of connectionist networks and artificial intelligence.
The work of these scientists finally collided when computing moved from an analogue to a digital system, combining Shannon’s binary language with Turing’s codebreaking and logic of machines. Building on the work of these two men, technology has evolved to amalgamate information, communication, and computing, which in turn has resulted in the fusion of real and digital life. The digitisation of photography, sound recording, film, radio, television, and telephone technology, along with the development of the Internet of Things which connects people and devices, has completely revolutionised how we experience the world. Moreover, it has realised Shannon’s vision of building a brain to which both data and culture can be fed.
“Shannon wants to not just feed data to a Brain, but cultural things! He wants to play music to it!”
– Alan Turing on Claude Shannon [2]
Claude Shannon
Born on the 30th April 1916 in Petoskey, a small town on Lake Michigan (USA), Claude Shannon was the son of a businessman and a language teacher/principal. A distant descendant of Thomas Edison, Shannon’s aptitude for mathematics and technology was evident even as a teenager and manifested as a passion for inventing, an interest he would maintain his entire life. As a child, he created a half-mile barbed-wire telegraph system, model planes, and a radio-controlled model boat.
In 1932, he studied electrical engineering and mathematics at the University of Michigan, graduating with two degrees. Subsequently, Shannon continued studying electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Here, he wrote his highly influential master’s thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, published in 1940, which the Encyclopaedia Britannica describes as “one of the most significant master’s theses of the 20th century”, elaborating “because digital circuits are fundamental to the operation of modern computers and telecommunications equipment.”[3]
Following his doctoral thesis, An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics, Shannon became a national research fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University, where he had the opportunity to discuss his ideas with revered mathematicians and scientists, including Albert Einstein. Then, in 1941, Shannon joined the mathematical department at Bell Labs to work on cryptography, culminating in the transformational post-war paper Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems. His work at Bell Labs led him to encounter Alan Turing, who was visiting the United States on an information-sharing mission. During Turing's two-month spell at Bell Labs, the two men would meet for tea to discuss Turing's 1936 paper defining the “Universal Turing Machine”.
Shannon co-wrote the technical report Data Smoothing and Prediction in Fire-control Systems. This essay addressed data and signal processing and essentially ushered in the Information Age. Then, in 1948, Shannon’s seminal work A Mathematical Theory of Communication was published in two instalments in the Bell System Technical Journal. Described by Scientific America as the “Magna Carta of the Information Age”, the paper details, as summarised by Shannon’s biographers Jimmy Soni and Rob Goodman, “how digital codes could allow us to compress and send any message with perfect accuracy.”[4] In addition to containing the first published use of “bit” (coined by John Tukey) to mean a binary information digit, Shannon’s paper established the basic results of information theory so completely that his framework and technology are still used today. Robert. G. Gallager, one of Shannon’s colleagues at MIT, explains:
“Shannon was the person who saw that the binary digit was the fundamental element in all communication. That was really his discovery, and from it the whole communications revolution has sprung.”
– Robert. G. Gallager [5]
In the 1950s, Claude Shannon progressed to developing machine learning. Alongside his second wife, Mary Elizabeth Moore, a numerical analyst at Bell Labs, Shannon built a mechanical mouse called Theseus which he subsequently taught to navigate a maze using telephone relay switches and trial and error. This successful experiment laid the basis for artificial intelligence. Indeed, Mazin Gilbert, an electrical engineer at Google, posits that Theseus:
“Inspired the whole field of AI. This random trial and error is the foundation of artificial intelligence.”
– Mazin Gilbert [6]
Regarded as an aloof, impatient eccentric by many, throughout his life Shannon remained a quirky inventor. He was also a pilot, juggler, unicyclist, chess player, codebreaker, expert stock-picker, and amateur poet who played jazz clarinet. Sadly, following several years of Alzheimer’s disease, Shannon died in 2001 at the age of 84. He was survived by his wife, son, daughter, and two granddaughters.
“I can visualise a time in the future when we will be to robots as dogs are to humans […] I am rooting for the machines!”
– Claude Shannon [7]
Alan Turing
Unlike Claude Shannon, Alan Turing was not afforded the luxury of a long life. Born on the 23rd June 1912, Alan Turing died by suicide (although this was contested by both his mother and some of his biographers) on the 7th June 1954 at the age of 41. His death followed years of homophobic persecution beginning in 1951 when he was charged with and ultimately convicted of “gross indecency”. This resulted in the removal of Turing’s security clearance and the loss of his position as a cryptographic consultant at GCHQ. His criminal conviction also barred him from entering the USA, where he had previously studied and worked. Horrifically, in pleading guilty and accepting probation rather than imprisonment, Turing was forced to undergo a year of chemical castration which negatively affected his health. Nevertheless, in just forty-one short years, Turing made such advances in computer science that his work continues to underpin progress in artificial intelligence today.
The son of a civil servant deployed to India, Turing spent most of his childhood in the care of family friends in England and attending private school. He quickly exhibited an aptitude for science and, like Claude Shannon, channelled his passion into rudimental experiments. Upon completing his education at Sherborne School, where his love of science was not appreciated, Turing enrolled as an undergraduate at King’s College Cambridge to study mathematics. He graduated with a first-class degree and became a fellow of King’s College in 1935.
In 1936, Turing delivered his paper On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem, which John Von Neumann, the foremost mathematician of the time, acknowledged as establishing the central concept of modern computing. The paper introduced the ‘Universal Machine’, now the ‘Universal Turing Machine’, the foundation of the modern theory of computation and computability.
Turing obtained his PhD from Princeton University in 1938, taking just 21 months to complete it. Despite a job offer at Princeton University, Turing returned to the UK as a King’s College Cambridge fellow. In addition to holding a position as a logician and number theorist at King’s College, Turing worked part-time at GCHQ, known then as the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS).
On the 4th September 1939, one day after the UK declared war on Germany, Turing reported for duty at the GC&CS’s wartime station Bletchley Park. Here, Turing tackled the cryptanalysis of Enigma, an encryption device used to protect commercial, diplomatic, and military communication. At Bletchley, he developed the functional specification for the bombe, an electro-mechanical decryption machine. By the war’s conclusion, two hundred bombe machines were routinely decoding Luftwaffe signals. Jack Good, a fellow code-breaker considered Turing’s work on the bombe his “most important contribution”.[8]
Not content with cracking the German Enigma, Turing turned to deciphering the previously unbreakable German naval communications because, as he said:
“[…] no one else was doing anything about it and I could have it to myself.”
– Alan Turing [9]
Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing’s biographer, reports that Turing became:
“The genius loci at Bletchley Park, famous as ‘Prof’, shabby, nail-bitten, tie-less, sometimes halting in speech and awkward of manner, the source of many hilarious anecdotes about bicycles, gas masks, and the Home Guard; the foe of charlatans and status-seekers, relentless in long shift work with his colleagues.”
– Andrew Hodges [10]
In the course of WWII, Turing also wrote two papers on mathematical approaches to codebreaking which were of such significance they were only released to the National Archives in 2012! As historian Asa Briggs asserts:
“You needed exceptional talent, you needed genius at Bletchley and Turing’s was that genius.”
– Asa Briggs [11]
Indeed, such was Turing’s genius that in 1943 he visited the United States on an information-sharing mission. This deployment would lead him to encounter Claude Shannon at Bell Labs where he was posted for two months to learn about speech encryption. The two men shared ideas and a vision for the future of machines. Shannon believed that machines should be able to imitate the workings of the human brain which aligned with Turing’s notion that:
“The idea behind digital computers may be explained by saying these machines are intended to carry out any operations which could be done by a human computer.”
– Alan Turing [12]
It has been suggested that Turing and Shannon’s discussions influenced the work of both men long after their brief encounters. For example, in 1950, Turing published Computing machinery and intelligence; a paper in which he described an experiment to demonstrate machine intelligence. This became known as the ‘Turing Test’ and is still relevant for assessing artificial intelligence (formerly known as machine intelligence). Meanwhile, in 1956, two years after Turing’s death, Shannon, alongside fellow computer scientist John McCarthy, proposed the Shannon-McCarthy Objection. Their paper concerned the Turing Test and posited that “a large yet finite look-up table could be used to generate human-like responses.”[13] 1956 was also the year that Shannon showed that just two symbols, e.g. 0 and 1, were required to operate a Turing Machine.
As the war came to a close, Turing transferred to the National Physical Laboratory where he worked on the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE). In February 1946, he drafted a detailed design of a stored-program computer that could switch between numerical work, code-breaking, file handling, and chess-playing. Then in 1947, he developed Abbreviated Code Instructions, an advance that marked the beginning of programming language. Despite this, the ACE machine was never built due to a lack of cooperation, much to Turing’s frustration.
Towards the end of his career, Turing briefly studied neurology and physiology, writing a paper that anticipated neural nets, before taking up the role of deputy director of Manchester University’s computing lab in 1948. Turing's move to Manchester University was motivated by the securement of funds, via the Royal Society, to build his stored-program computer. By 1950, Turing was using this computer for research into the mathematical theory of morphogenesis. Typical of Turing, his research culminated in the paper The chemical basis of morphogenesis, a foundational document dealing with non-linear dynamical theory.
In July 1951, Turing was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society. This was to be one of Turing’s final achievements as events subsequently spiralled leading to his conviction of “gross indecency”. This judgement was eventually pardoned on 24th December 2013 by Queen Elizabeth II, 59 years after Turing’s death by suspected suicide.
Shannon & Turing: Pioneers, Geniuses, Humans
Pioneering mathematicians and computer scientists, neither Turing nor Shannon’s genius is contained to the 1940s. As the fathers of computer science (Turing) and the Information Age (Shannon), these men laid the foundations for the digital world we live in today. In their paper Life in Code and Digits: When Shannon met Turing, Tula Giannini and Jonathon P. Bowen describe Turing and Shannon’s developments as having:
“Led to the life-changing and ubiquitous fusion of information, communication, and computing, which today has reached a tipping point of sorts that is often referred to as the Internet of Things (IoT), but in reality is more like the “Information of Life” (IoL), connecting people as well as devices.”
– Tula Giannini and Jonathon P. Bowen [14]
Claude Shannon’s biographers, Jimmy Soni and Rob Goodman, offer a similar assessment of his impact
“The architect of the Information Age, whose insights stand behind every computer built, email sent, video streamed, and webpage loaded”
– Jimmy Soni and Rob Goodman [15]
Nevertheless, as world-altering as these men were, it is important to remember that they too were humans, and, like all people, cannot be viewed solely through the prism of their achievements. This is especially evident when considering the life of Alan Turing.
As the father of computer science, Alan Turing has left a transformational legacy. The impact of his life is obvious but his death also holds significance. His suicide reminds us that mental ill-health disproportionately affects men, especially men working within engineering, construction, and the trades. Of course, we cannot view Turing’s death as representative of all male suicide and we can only suppose as to the factors that might have led to his end. Still, Turing’s death may prompt us to consider the circumstances affecting men’s mental health today; the ways these influences manifest; and how they can be addressed to protect men and boys.
Men’s Mental Health
Mental illness does not discriminate: anyone can suffer from poor mental health and everyone is susceptible to mental strains and stresses. Be that as it may, it has long been acknowledged that poor mental health and the risk of suicide are major problems among men and boys. For example, suicide rates across the UK are higher for men than they are for women.
England (2023)
- Male: 17.1 per 100 000
- Female: 5.6 per 100 000
Wales (2023)
- Male: 22.0 per 100 000
- Female: 6.3 per 100 000
Scotland (2023)
- Males are three times more likely to die by suicide than females
Northern Ireland (2022)
- Male: 19.2 per 100 000
- Female: 5.7 per 100 000 [16]
Considering this, it is unsurprising that mental health issues and suicides tend to be high in industries dominated by men. For instance, in construction, an industry where only 15% of jobs are occupied by women, men are not only more likely to die by suicide than women but are three times more likely to die by suicide compared to men working in other sectors![17]
Learn More About Helping Men in Construction with Their Mental Health
Similar research conducted by Ironmongery Direct found that 82% of tradespeople, that’s four out of five, have suffered stress, anxiety, or depression because of their work. 56% said they experienced work-related stress at least once a month; 40% every fortnight; 27% reported feeling stressed every week; and 8% attested to suffering symptoms every day.[18]
Many factors affect mental health and these will vary from individual to individual. However, Ironmongery Direct identified that the cost-of-living crisis (34%) and cost of materials (32%) were the predominant causes of stress among tradespeople in 2024.[19]
Unfortunately, despite responding to Ironmongery Direct’s survey, 88% of tradespeople said they felt uncomfortable talking about their mental health, with just one in ten having spoken to a friend or family member about their worries.[20]
Further to this, research conducted by Hays and The Engineer discovered that 51% of engineers who have experienced stress at work have not spoken to their employer about it. It was revealed that this is because most engineers (39%) don’t feel comfortable doing so; they don’t think their employer could help (34%); or they’re worried it would negatively affect their career (19%).
Discover More About Mental Health within the Trades
Protecting Men’s Mental Health
From the research, it is reasonable to suggest that the stigma surrounding mental health is a significant barrier to tradespeople and engineers seeking help. Therefore, employers, friends, family, and individuals must work to create an environment in which people feel supported and able to speak openly about stress.
How Can Employers Improve Men’s Mental Health?
To create a healthy environment in which colleagues and employees feel safe and supported, business owners must invest in mental health training; enact what they learn; and abide by their policies. Additionally, employers should learn to spot warning signs and provide staff with the tools/resources required to navigate work stress effectively.[21]
How Can Friends & Family Support Their Male Loved Ones?
Fostering a supportive, safe environment in which men can be honest about their mental struggles is essential. Mates in Mind, a mental health charity focused on the construction sector, has provided nine tips on instigating a reassuring conversation about mental health:
- Ask twice – don’t take “I’m fine” at face value.
- Keep it informal
- Be supportive
- Use open questions
- Listen
- You don’t have to provide the solution
- Follow up
- Look after yourself too
- Connect them to information and support [22]
Mates in Mind’s Top Tips on Discussing Mental Health
How Can Men Protect Their Mental Health?
Talking honestly to your employer, friends, or family about your worries, as well as seeking tools and support when you need them, can help to alleviate mental strain. Additionally, the mental health charity Mind offers the following five suggestions for dealing with stress:
- Understand more about stress
- Figure out what you find helpful and what triggers you
- Learn about different coping techniques
- Exercise regularly
- Practice mindfulness [23]
Mind’s 5 Tips to Protect Your Mental Health
Further Information
If you or someone you know is struggling or if you’re looking for ways to improve your mental health and that of your colleagues, the following charities and organisations can offer help, support, and resources:
PASS Ltd is a leading UK provider of test equipment, thermal cameras, tools, training, and calibration. For more information about any of these services, please contact our team on 01642 931 329 or via our online form.
[1] Information for this blog was largely gathered from the following sources:
- Tula Giannini and Jonathon P. Bowen, Life in Code and Digits: When Shannon met Turing, last accessed 19 November 2024.
- Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Alan Turing’, The Engineer, last accessed 19 November 2024.
- Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Claude Shannon – father of the Information Age’, The Engineer, last accessed 19 November 2024.
Additional references are made throughout the blog.
[2] Tula Giannini and Jonathon P. Bowen, Life in Code and Digits: When Shannon met Turing.
[3] George Markowsky, ‘Claude Shannon’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, last accessed 19 November 2024.
[4] Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Claude Shannon – father of the Information Age’.
[5] Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Claude Shannon – father of the Information Age’.
[6] Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Claude Shannon – father of the Information Age'.
[7] Tula Giannini and Jonathon P. Bowen, Life in Code and Digits: When Shannon met Turing.
[8] Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Alan Turing’.
[9] Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Alan Turing’.
[10] Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Alan Turing’.
[11] Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Alan Turing’.
[12] Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Alan Turing’.
[13] Tula Giannini and Jonathon P. Bowen, Life in Code and Digits: When Shannon met Turing.
[14] Tula Giannini and Jonathon P. Bowen, Life in Code and Digits: When Shannon met Turing.
[15] Nick Smith, ‘Late great engineers: Claude Shannon – father of the Information Age’.
[16] Samaritans, Latest suicide data, last accessed 19 November 2024.
[17] Professional Builder, Mental health in the construction industry, last accessed 19 November 2024.
[18] Ironmongery Direct, Mental Health in the Trades: 2024 Report, last accessed 19 November 2024.
[19] Ironmongery Direct, Mental Health in the Trades: 2024 Report.
[20] Ironmongery Direct, Mental Health in the Trades: 2024 Report.
[21] Electrical Direct, Raising awareness for mental health in the electrical trade, last accessed 19 November 2024.
[22] Professional Builder, Mental health in the construction industry.
[23] Ironmongery Direct, Mental Health in the Trades: 2024 Report.
